The Information Processing System: Memory, Active Reading, Notes
Learning Objectives
Learn, remember and retrieve information;
Identify active reading strategies;
Discern the note taking strategies that will work for you.
“Action is the antidote to despair.”
– Joan Baez, contemporary American folk singer/songwriter
Whenever we are exposed to new information we have two options: disregard the information or keep it. If the brain decides to keep it, the information will be encoded and placed into the short-term memory (STM). After it arrives at the STM it must be transformed and manipulated if we want to keep it in the long-term memory (LTM). Once in the LTM, we should be able to retrieve information as desired, and when necessary. This process of perceiving information, registering it with our senses, encoding information into short-term and working memory, then either storing to or retrieving from long-term memory using executive control processors is what educational psychologists call the information processing system (IPS). You’re welcome to read more about the IPS, https://bit.ly/C20IPS, in an article by Imed Bouchrika on Research.com.
If this process of storage and retrieval feels so simple, then:
Why do college students have such a hard time remembering things during exams?
What does learning really mean?
How and when do you know that you have actually learned something?
There are no simple answers to those questions since multiple factors, including overall health, stress, language, learning environment and social and cultural power dynamics all affect learning.
In this text, we discuss effective learning strategies that help with both storage and retrieval of information, which really only addresses one aspect of the learning process, but that we hope will help you. In the article Focus, focus, focus, https://bit.ly/focuslearningnetwork, you’ll learn how the brain processes information and be linked to a TED talk about Working Memory and how it works in everyday life. Since one of our goals is to help you think with a critical mind, you could use the following questions to reinforce what you have learned:
How could I manipulate and transform the information I’m receiving in order to make it permanent knowledge?
What current strategies I’m using to help me retrieve information and how often do I practice them?
MEMORY
Learning, remembering and retrieving information is required for success in school. The first thing our brains do is to take in information from our senses (what we see, hear, taste, touch and smell). In many classroom and homework settings, we primarily use hearing for lectures and seeing for reading textbooks. Information we perceive from our senses is stored in what we call the short-term memory. It is useful to then be able to do multiple things with information in the short-term memory.
We want to:
Decide if that information is important;
Save or store the information we decide is important in our long-term memory;
Retrieve any stored information when we need to for exams or performing tasks.
In some classes and with some textbooks it is easy to determine information important to memorize. In other courses with other textbooks, that process may be more difficult. Your instructor can be a valuable resource to assist with determining the information that needs to be memorized. Once the important information is identified, it is helpful to organize it in a way that will help you best understand.
Moving Information From Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory
There is no shortcut for truly encoding information into long-term memory. Students who skip putting in the work often end up cramming before an exam, but may not be able to retrieve important information after the exam is completed. Preview the information you are trying to memorize. The more familiar you are with what you are learning, the better. Create acronyms like SCUBA for memorizing “self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.” Organizing information in this way can be helpful because it is not as difficult to memorize the acronym, and with practice and repetition, the acronym can trigger the brain to recall the entire piece of information.
Flash cards are a valuable tool for memorization because they allow students to be able to test themselves. They are convenient to bring with you anywhere, and can be used effectively whether a student has one minute or an hour. Once information is memorized, regardless of when the exam is, the last step is to apply the information. Ask yourself: In what real world scenarios could you apply this information? And for mastery, try to teach the information to someone else.
ACTIVE READING STRATEGIES
Successful students approach reading with a strategy that helps them get the most out of their reading. These students read actively. They seek out the main idea of the material, themes, and for words they do not understand. The opposite of reading actively is reading passively. Passive readers simply skip over things they do not understand and have difficulty understanding the material as a result. In this unit, we are going to practice active reading. You will find that active reading is more enjoyable, lets you understand more of what you have read, and leads to better test scores.
Active Versus Passive Reading
The first part of active reading is to read through the material once while making notes about anything you find interesting or important. It is okay to not understand everything the first time through. Make a note next to any words you may need to define later. When you finish, stop for a few minutes and think about what you just read. What is your first impression? Did you enjoy it? Why or why not? What was the most memorable part of the reading? Did something in it surprise you? Take a few minutes to add these thoughts to the notes you took while reading.
Now, take a break and go do something else. Get outside, run an errand, or take care of some chores. Allow yourself to absorb what you read without thinking too much about it or worrying about what you did not understand. When you come back, use a dictionary to find the definitions of the words you marked earlier because you were not sure what they meant. Revisit any sections you did not understand the first time through and decide if they make more sense now. If something is still unclear, review your notes and briefly read the material a second time. Any confusing parts will likely be much clearer now! If the material is still unclear, it is time to go to your instructor’s office hours, ask a peer or seek support through the various tutoring services, smc.edu/tutoring, offered by SMC.
Video
Review this video, 5 Active Reading Strategies, https://bit.ly/activereadingFrank, that takes you through different active reading strategies to improve your ability to understand and recall the material that you read.
As you observe the video, take notes using Thomas’ suggestions;
Next, take a few moments to reflect on the video. Consider questions like:
What was the most memorable part of the video?
What is one new piece of information you learned?
What questions do you have about the video?
Review your notes. If you do not understand all of the main points, replay the video. You don't have to go through the whole thing again--it's okay to just review sections that address the specific questions you have or replay it at a faster speed.
SQ3R
Active reading strategies can significantly increase learning new information. SQ3R is one of the most popular active reading strategies designed to help retain information into long term memory.
The five-steps involved in the SQ3R include:
STEP 1. SURVEY – WHAT CAN I LEARN FROM THE TEXT?
Before reading, skim the material:
Skim the table of contents and find 3-5 main ideas that will be presented in the text;
Pay attention to names, headings and subheadings;
Read the captions under images, tables, diagrams and maps;
Pay particular attention to the introductory and final paragraphs, which often contain a summary of the text.
STEP 2. QUESTION – WHAT DO I HOPE TO LEARN FROM THE TEXT?
Before reading a section, formulate questions and do the following:
Rephrase headings into questions;
Determine whether the author has formulated questions at the beginning or end of the section;
Recall what you already know about the topic and what you still want to learn about it;
Ask yourself:
“What did my instructor say about this chapter or subject when it was assigned?”
“What do I already know about this subject?”
You may find it helpful to write out these questions for consideration. These questions could very well serve as potential test questions for upcoming quizzes, midterms, and/or the final.
STEP 3. READ – WHAT ARE THE ANSWERS TO YOUR QUESTIONS?
Read captions under images and diagrams, and search for highlighted information;
Be open-minded by paying attention to new ideas and differing opinions;
Stop and reread difficult and unclear parts;
Answer the questions you created in Step 2;
Reread captions under pictures, graphs, etc;
Note all the underlined, italicized, bold printed words or phrases;
Study tables, charts, and graphs;
Stop and reread parts which are not clear;
Read only a section at a time and recite after each section.
STEP 4. RECITE – WHAT DO YOU WANT TO REMEMBER FROM THE INFORMATION OBTAINED?
Think about what you've read and summarize the main ideas expressed in the text;
If you don’t understand something, reread that section;
Take notes, expressing ideas in your own words;
Reciting:
The more senses you use, the more likely you are to remember what you read;
To triple strength learning apply: seeing, saying and hearing;
To quadruple strength learning apply: seeing, saying, hearing, and writing.
STEP 5. RECALL – HOW CAN YOU LINK THE INFORMATION TO YOUR OWN EXPERIENCE?
After reading the whole text, reread your own notes and pay attention to the main ideas and connections between the ideas;
Connect what you have learned to your own experience and other sources of information;
This step is an ongoing process;
For example:
Day One
After you have read and recited the entire chapter, write questions in the margins for those points you have highlighted or underlined;
If you took notes while reciting, write questions for the notes you have taken in the left hand margins of your notebook.
Day Two
Page through the text and/or your notebook to re-acquaint yourself with the important points;
Cover the right-hand column of your text/note-book and orally ask yourself the questions in the left hand margins;
Orally recite or write the answers from memory;
Develop mnemonic devices for material which need to be memorized;
Make flash cards for those questions which give you difficulty.
Days Three, Four and Five
Alternate between your flashcards and notes and test yourself (orally or in writing) on the questions you formulated;
Make additional flash cards if necessary.
Weekend
Using the text and notebook, make a Table of Contents - list all the topics and subtopics you need to know from the chapter;
From the Table of Contents, make a Study Sheet;
Recite the information orally and in your own words as you put the Study Sheet together;
As you have consolidated all the information you need for this chapter, periodically review the Sheet/Map so that at test time you will not have to cram.
Online Reading Strategies
If you choose to take online courses, be prepared for more reading! The online learning environment differs from the traditional face-to-face format. The California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office Online Education Initiative focuses on providing online students with the support and resources, www.bit.ly/C20_OnlineLearningResources, necessary for success. Take time to explore the site if you choose to pursue online courses.
For now, we will focus on the Online Student Readiness Tutorial titled Online Reading Strategies, http://bit.ly/C20_OnlineReadStrat to help you:
Understand some of the differences between reading print versus reading online;
Learn strategies for staying focused when reading online;
Discover ways to maximize your reading speed and comprehension.
In an online educational environment, you're probably going to do more reading than listening. You may do some of your reading in printed form—say, an assigned novel or textbook—but some of it might also be online in the form of a webpage. Reading online isn't the same as reading in print, so you should practice some strategies that will improve your online reading comprehension and speed. Some of the strategies you learn about here will help you with any kind of reading you might do, not just online content.
Print Versus Online Reading
What do we mean when we say that reading print is different from reading online?
First, when you read something that's been printed by a reputable publishing house, you can assume that the work is authoritative. The author had to be vetted by a publishing house and multiple editors. When you read something online, however, it can be written or posted by anybody. This means that you have to closely scrutinize the source of the information. Pay attention to who was writing what you're reading. Can you identify the author? What are their credentials?
Second, in the print world, texts may include pictures, graphics, or other visual elements to supplement the author's writing. In the digital realm, however, this supplementary material might also include hyperlinks, audio, and video. This will fundamentally change the reading experience for you because online reading can be interactive in a way that a printed book can't. An online environment allows you to engage with content rather than passively reading it;
Finally, when you read in print, you generally read sequentially from the first word to the last. Maybe you'll flip to an index or refer to a footnote, but otherwise the way you read is fairly consistent and straightforward. Online, however, you can be led quickly into an entirely new area of reading by clicking on links or related content.
What, Why, How, When, Where?
Now that you've heard about how reading online differs from reading print, you should know that this has some really practical implications for reading comprehension. Improving your online reading comprehension will save you time and frustration when you work on your assignments. You'll be able to understand your course subject matter better, and your performance on your quizzes and exams will improve.
Consider the "Why, What, and How" of reading comprehension:
Why? – Why am I being asked to read this passage? In other words, what are the instructions my professor has given me?
What? – What am I supposed to get out of this passage? That is, what are the main concerns, questions, and points of the text? What do you need to remember for class?
How? – How will I remember what I just read? In most cases, this means taking notes and defining key terms.
When you keep the "Why, What, and How" of reading comprehension in the forefront of your mind while reading, your understanding of the material will improve drastically. It will only take a few minutes. Doing so will not only help you remember what you've read, but also structure any notes that you might want to take.
QUESTIONS ABOUT ONLINE READING FROM STUDENTS:
Q: I'm so used to reading printed texts and I actually prefer it because I don't get distracted as easily as I do when I'm online. How can I keep myself from getting distracted when reading online?
A: When you read online, the hyperlinks, images, audio, and video interactivity embedded in the text can be a really tempting distraction. Try reading a passage straight through at least once without clicking on any of the hyperlinks or participating in any of the interactive opportunities. First, get a basic "feel" for the passage, then read it with the interactive components to augment your reading. Another strategy is to turn off notifications from other apps while you are doing a short reading session.
Q: I once had a professor who didn't want us to use our phones to read our assigned texts. Why does this matter?
A: Depending on the text, when you read your assignments from the small screen of a phone. It may be easy to miss words and meanings when the reading process itself is already challenging. The brain benefits from being able to take in phrases, clusters of words as well as staying oriented using the headers and general formatting of text that may be easier to use in printed material or on a larger screen.
Q: You've talked a lot today about comprehension, but I'd really like to know how I can improve my online reading speed. Can you share some tips?
A: To read more quickly and efficiently online, try to avoid distractions like ads, notifications from other apps, pop-ups, or hyperlinks that will lead you away from your assignment. Another strategy you can try is to scan the page before actually reading, focusing on keywords and phrases rather than every single word. It will not only help you to read faster, but also give you a sense of the main ideas.
Video
Go deeper with these 9 Best Study Tips that scientists who study learning have compiled for you, https://bit.ly/9tipsforstudying
Amishi Jha studies how we pay attention: the process by which our brain decides what's important out of the constant stream of information it receives. Both external distractions (like stress) and internal ones (like mind-wandering) diminish our attention's power, Jha says -- but some simple techniques can boost it. https://bit.ly/wanderingattention
NOTE-TAKING
Taking effective notes while reading a text or listening to a lecture is an important part of active reading as well as a great strategy to help you encode information from working memory into long-term memory storage. One strategy for effective note taking is called the Cornell Note-taking System. After you have read through this section once, try reading it again and practice your active reading by implementing the Cornell Note-taking System.
The Cornell Note-taking System was devised in the 1950s by Walter Pauk, an education professor at Cornell University. The Cornell Note-taking System is used in universities all over the world.
It has Five Steps which begin with R:
Record
Reduce
Recite
Reflect
Review
How To Take Cornell Notes
Use a blank piece of paper. Down the left side, draw a vertical line 2 1/2 inches, or less than 1/3rd the width from the edge of the paper. End this line 2-inches above the bottom of the paper, or about 1/5th the total height. Draw a horizontal line across the bottom of the paper, 2-inches above the paper's edge;
In the narrow (2 1/2") column on the left, you will write cue words or questions you have about the content. In the wide (6") column, or right 2/3rds of the page, on the right, you will write your topic content, lecture, or reading notes;
In the space at the bottom of the sheet, you will summarize your notes.
Example of Cornell Note-Takin System
Step 1: Record Your Notes
During a lecture, stay focused, listen attentively to the lecture, and take notes. Do not just listen! Try to write down as many meaningful ideas and facts as possible on the right hand side of the page. If you miss a word, just insert a blank space and keep writing. After class when you review your notes, you can check the textbook or other resources and check with other students in the class to fill in the blanks. If something the instructor says is confusing, put an * next to it so you know to ask for clarification about the point later. Taking notes keeps the mind focused so the information is received by the brain and registers in short-term memory instead of just passing through. Avoid all interruptions such as music, text messages, and daydreaming.
Step 2: Reduce Notes to Questions and Keywords
After class, write questions in the left hand column that go along with the notes on the right. Think of What, Who, Where, When, How, and Why, questions. When it’s time to study your notes, cover up the note section of the page and quiz yourself using the questions you wrote in the left column. You may also write key words for important concepts on the left hand side of the page. This rehearsal strategy helps you work with the information in your short-term working memory.
Step 3: Recite
Now cover the notes, and use the keywords and questions as cues to help you recall the different points in the notes. Recite the answers to the questions and explain the key words. Then uncover your notes to check if the information you recalled is correct. This strategy is a rehearsal strategy that helps you work with the information in your short-term working memory. The longer and more frequently you work with the information by answering the questions and recalling the notes, the longer the information stays in working memory.
Step 4: Reflect and Summarize
At the bottom of the page, write 3 to 7 sentences summarizing in your own words what the notes on the page say. Explain the main point or points as if you had to teach someone else. Use keywords, be concise, and clarify. Assign meaning to the information by stating how it is of value to you, why you need to know this, and if this information reminds you of any prior learning. These elaboration strategies help to transfer information in the brain from short-term to long-term memory.
Step 5: Review
Review your Cornell notes frequently to help you work with the information and retain it. The more frequently you work with information the longer the information will remain in store so you can retrieve it on the day of a test.
In addition to using Cornell Notes for lecture, you may also apply this style of note-taking while reading text materials for each of your classes.
More Tips for Note-Taking:
To store information long-term in the brain, you can use additional elaboration strategies that make you THINK about the information. You can expand your knowledge and understanding of the material presented in a lecture or in a textbook by deepening your learning with these critical thinking prompts:
Describe the topic overall;
Define the relation between (one topic) and (a related topic from the material);
List the various factors that impact (whatever you are studying);
Recount the the effect of the topic or material on society at large;
Outline the importance of the topic you studied;
Compare and contrast the different ways the topic is regarded by different scholars or authors.
Thinking about information will help you store information in long-term memory so that you can retrieve it not just on the day of a test but at the end of the semester or for the next level of the course.
Video
This video covers everything you need to know– from the science to the techniques– to take better notes https://bit.ly/crashcoursenote;
SMC’s Library team put together an excellent presentation on how to conduct library research, https://bit.ly/libraryresearchtips, and write research papers that has tons of resources on evaluating sources, citing them, and how to conduct fruitful searches for your scholarly projects;
They have also compiled some recordings and presentations on a variety of library and research topics, https://bit.ly/presentationonresearch, you might find helpful.
N.B.: The Student Success Library item was customized for Santa Monica College (SMC) in Santa Monica, CA. You may come across SMC-specific resources, links, or activities that do not apply to you. Search for your own school’s resources or google for similar tools that can help you where you live, study and work.
This work, The Information Processing System, is part of the Student Success Library, which is a derivative of Student Success, originally modified by Vanessa Bonilla, Dr. Tyffany Dowd, Jackeline Felix, Dyana Valentine, Olivia Vallejo and Daniella Washington from the original Student Success by Graciela Martinez, Anh Nguyen, and Liz Shaker under CC BY-SA 4.0. Student Success Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 by Dyana Valentine. Last edit date: July 2022.